Long ago our clothing was made by hand and with resources from the land. Our people understood that clothing was more than protection from weather and bugs. It was also a reflection of our philosophy of life. We respected our land, our environment, living and non-living things, and each other. We showed respect for animals we had killed by using all of them that we could: their meat, their fur, their hide, their bones, their antlers, horn, teeth and claws. We used whatever we could when creating our clothing.

Note that by using all of the animal and only products from nature in our clothing, we were treating the environment with respect. Everything we used came from nature and went back to nature when it was worn out. So, our skin clothing deteriorated and became dust. Or an animal might eat it. It simply disappeared with time. Our people lived a very hard life. They could not go to the store to buy anything. Everything they used or ate was made or captured by themselves. Everyday they worked long hours day and night through all kinds of weather. Providing clothing was only one of the many daily tasks that they had on their list of things to do. As you read through this section, remember that all of this was done in addition to hunting, trapping, gathering plant food, preparing for winter by preserving food, and so on.

Everyday clothing was made for working

We took pride and pleasure in making clothing, from hunting the animal to finished product. Each person had a role to play and did so willingly. The hunter took pride in bringing home the hides and furs necessary for making clothing. The women took pride and pleasure in tanning the hides and then sewing the articles of clothing. Children helped wherever possible. Sometimes this meant collecting cones for smoking hides or helping to scrape hides or even minding young children so that their mother could work on the hide.

You will see that our clothing styles changed throughout the years, just as the styles of all people change. All people share ideas about what looks good and what is practical. Notice that some of our ideas are our own, some are shared with other natives groups (they gave us ideas, we gave them some), and we learned to make clothing (such as pants) which were warmer than our designs. We adopted different decoration, such as beads. Sometimes we stopped using our own materials for a time (quills, for example). These are all natural changes that happen in any society.

We had 2 types of clothing: everyday wear and ceremonial clothing. Everyday clothing had only a little or no decoration. Ceremonial clothes were highly decorated and very fancy.

Our everyday clothing was designed to be practical. It needed to protect us against the cold of winter or the bugs in summer. It must also be comfortable, allowing for ease of movement as we traveled to hunt and/or to gather food. Now we buy almost all of our clothing, but modern clothing must also be practical and meet our needs.

Hides were tanned for clothing

All clothing was made of hand-tanned hide and/or fur long ago. We adapted our clothing and sewing materials as times changed. In early times we did not use needles, but sewed with sinew and an awl. The awl was used to make holes in pieces of hide where they were to be joined. Sinew was then poked through the holes and pulled through to join the pieces of hide. This was slow work. When metal needles were brought in, it was faster to sew with them, although sometimes the hide was thick, so an awl still needed to be used.

The sewing machine was a great time-saver for our women. They could sew a seam in no time with a machine. The first sewing machines were operated by a foot-treadle. This meant that no electricity was needed and women could take use their sewing machines anywhere.

Moose and caribou were the largest animals and their hides were the most prized for clothing. Smaller animals were mainly used for fur articles, such as blankets or sleeping mats, "socks", or in winter shirts. As times changed, we began to use cloth more and more. Nowadays we rarely sew large clothing items with tanned hides, and if we do, then we use a sewing machine to sew the seams instead of hand-sewing.

The clothing of our men and women were similar. Usually the men wore long boots or moccasins, long leggings, breech-clouts, belt, shirt, robe and cap or headband. Some did not wear a shirt when the weather was warm enough. Sometimes they wore only breech-clouts at home in warm weather. Mitts and fur neck wraps were added in cold weather.

Women wore boots or moccasins and leggings like those of men. They did wear breech-clouts. They had dresses which were similar to men's shirts, only much longer. Belts, robes, caps or hoods, neck wraps and mitts were also worn by women.

Long ago, in the winter, boots were preferred to moccasins and leggings. No ponchos were used; not even the vests that tied at the sides. No aprons, skirts, or bodices were used. Cloaks and capes were not part of everyday clothing, but were part of ceremonial clothes. We did not make clothing of bark. The Tlingit used clothing like these, so we knew about bark clothing, but did not use them ourselves.

Our clothing has changed over the years. But the one article of clothing that has changed the least is our moccasins. They are still made in basically the same way as always.

Our moccasins were made of tanned moose or caribou hide and sewn with sinew. Nowadays a synthetic sinew is usually used. It looks and feels like real sinew. We do not tan hides as often as formerly, so it is common to see factory-tanned hide instead of home-tanned.

Long ago there was only one style or cut of moccasin used. This style had a round toe and a long tongue. It was of three pieces: foot (bottom), tongue, and top (upper legging, or anklepiece). The heel seam was T-shaped and there was no toe seam. The foot piece at the toe was turned up over the end of the foot. It was sewn to the tongue and had to be puckered to fit.

The tongues of some of these moccasins were longer in proportion than others, some reaching almost to the end of the toes. In most, the tongue was further back, reaching to about the base of the toes. Our moccasin tongues were generally narrower than those of our neighbours. Nowadays this is not necessarily the case. Wider tongues use less hide and are easier to sew since the pleats do not have to be so tiny.

The ankle piece varied in depth and consisted of lighter leather than the foot piece. Moccasins with overlapped uppers were called wrap-arounds. Laces were made of two strings of tanned caribou hide. To fasten the wrap-arounds, the uppers were overlapped, then the strings passed around them and around the ankle and tie to hold the moccasin firmly in place.

Moccasin slippers were used around home, then and now. There is no lacing on these, but some have a loop at the heel for helping to pull them on.

Over the years, there have been several styles of moccasins in use by us. When Teit was among us in 1912-1915, he collected information about the types of moccasins either in use or known at that time. One type, that Teit calls Type A, the Tahltan or "round-toed" type, was still used by some (Teit says, in 1915), but usually only for snowshoeing. This type of moccasin was also used by natives in the south, and was copied from fur traders.

Type B (according to Teit), is the "square-cut toe". This is also a three-piece moccasin. The tongue is short and the foot piece has a T-shaped toe seam. The toe seam usually ends at the top of the foot, very near the end of the toe, rather than exactly at the end of the toe. The exact placing varies. There is also some difference in the width of the horizontal cut at the end of the toe.

A third type that Teit has identified is what he calls Type C, "seam over toe" style. This is another 3-piece moccasin. It is different from Type B only because it has a straight seam instead of a T-shaped toe seam. This seam runs down the front of the foot from the tongue to and over the toe. It ends underneath the toe. Sometimes the end of the seam is slightly puckered and sometimes not.There is a little variation in the exact position of the end of the seam. Some end exactly at the tip of the toe, some end under the foot Ñ in all the seam goes around the foot.

This third type of moccasin is very similar to those of natives to the south (Okanagan, Shuswap, etc.). With their moccasins, the toe seam ends at the point of the toe, never under it. There is very little puckering of the seam where it ends.

The fourth type, Type D or "tongueless" or "duffel" kind. This is a one-piece moccasin. It usually has a shaped heel seam and a straight toe seam ending at the point of or under the toe. There is no tongue. Sometimes uppers are added to make it a 2-piece moccasin. When it has an upper, it is laced like modern day shoes. This type of moccasin is not used by natives in the southern parts of British Columbia. In fact, it only came into use in the early 1900"s and is copied from blanket and duffels or extra socks used inside moccasins in cold weather by non-natives in the north.

Teit"s notes point out that of all styles of moccasins, Types A, B, and C, the "round-toed" Type A was the only kind used by us long ago (and in 1915, when Teit wrote his notes). It was also the only kind used at one time by the Taku Tagish, and the Kaska. According to Teit"s sources (that is, our Tahltan people), this is the only kind used by the Tlingit.

It is also interesting to note that Teit points out that Emmons (another researcher who was in the Telegraph Creek area about the same time) had made a mistake. Emmons appare ntly mixed up Types A (round-toed) and B styles. Emmons said that the round-toed style was copied from the Kaska. In fact, this style did come from the Kaska, but they did not originate the style. The story is that this type of moccasin came from a non-native fur trader from the east. Therefore, this round-toed moccasin probably came into this part of the country around 1830"s.

Teit also reports that the over-the toe Type C is another moccasin that was brought in via the Kaskas. Teit"s sources agree that this style was brought in after Type B.

The descriptions by these two researchers is a bit confusing. Emmons describes type a and type b. His type a has the toe part of the bottom piece cut square across the front with diagonal cuts on each side. His type b is the same as Teit"s Tahltan rounded-toe.

The Emmon"s type a would make a roomier moccasin. It would have room for fur "socks". His type b fits closer to the foot and has a smoother appear ance. It fits very nicely into moccasin rubbers which keeps the moccasins dry. It is the type that is now made. Perhaps the reason that this type of moccasin is so common is that it can be worn in moccasin rubbers. Dry feet are a must in the bush.

Moccasins were made more comfortable for walking by sewing an extra sole on the bottom of the foot. Also, when the sole or the toe wore out, another would be sewn over top of it or it would be patched. Nowadays, this is still done, but more often, the moccasin is thrown away.

Our lacings are arranged differently from those of the interior Salish and Kootenay. An awl is used to make a holes on each side of the moccasin, slightly below the upper, about half way between the heel and toe, or immediately below the shin bone. 2 other holes (on each side) are placed 2-5 cm (2-3 inches) further forward on the side of the instep near the joining of the foot piece with the tongue and the upper. Each moccasin has 2 strings, one on each side. One end of the string is knotted to prevent pulling through.

The string is passed through the inside of the back hole, then threaded in and out of the two holes. This arrangement makes a loop on each side of the foot through which the free ends of the strings are passed from opposite sides across the front of the ankle. The uppers are folded across each other in front of the foot. The crossed strings hold these in place.

We do not stuff our wet moccasins with dry grass to dry them. Sometimes, long ago small sticks were be used to keep them stretched. We did not use lasts in making or shaping moccasins. They were sewn free-hand, then and now. We did not make sandals of any sort. Nor did we make fish-skin moccasins.

Tongues were (and still are) rounded in the lower part where they fit into the foot piece of the moccasin. Usually the tongue is cut square across at the upper edge. But some are more or less rounded triangular in shape at the upper edge. Long ago, only fancy moccasins had double tongue pieces. The piece on top was usually decorated as well. The lower piece was the real tongue, the top was the decoration.

Today hand-made moccasins are still made and are greatly appreciated. Some are made to be sold, but some women make moccasins for their family and friends. Moccasins for a gift are treasured and the sewer are proud of their handwork.

Long boots of caribou leather were common long ago. In fact they were still used for some time after the coming of the Europeans and Asians. They were the same as long leggings joined to a round-toed moccasin. The legs of boots reached up to the thighs and were square cut at the tops. They were held up by strings which fastened to a separate belt around the waist. They were also supported by garters just below the knees. The strings were fastened to the front of the leggings, not the sides.

Modern day mukluks are a variation of the boot. The difference is that mukluks reach only to just above, or more often, just below the knee. This style of low boot was probably borrowed from the natives from east of Tahltan country.

We used socks only in the winter time. They were not real socks, but were skins of fur-bearing animals with the fur left on. The skin was just large enough to wrap around the foot with the fur side next to the foot.

The most common skin used was the marmot. Sometimes dry, soft grass was shredded very finely or caribou hair was teased to form a soft fibrous mat and used instead of fur socks. No socks of woven materials were used. Nowadays, of course, we use socks and duffels bought from the store, although some people knit socks from yarn purchased from the store. Duffels are usually made of felt, but are sometimes made of other modern materials, such as polar fleece or thinsulate. Again, these are most often purchased, but some people sew them as well.

Leggings used to be used. They were made of tanned caribou hide and were square-cut both at the tops and bottoms. These were not cut to fit higher than the thigh and did not extend up beyond the hip. Leggings (and boots) were not form-fitting, but were loose. They were not shaped to fit the leg, either. Leggings were long, reaching from the ankle to the thigh and were fastened to the belt by strings, as with boots. Usually they were also fastened with garters at the knee.

When our people were traveling in snow, they would make sure that snow could not get in at the foot. They would wrap them moccasin strings. Or they would fold the moccasin flaps over them. However, boots were preferred to leggings in the winter time.

Our people adapted the material that they were made with as new materials became available. When heavy blanket cloth was brought in, they sometimes used that instead of skin. These were shorter, sometimes coming to just above the knee. But use of leggings died out when pants became popular. Women often used pants under their skirts when traveling in snow.

It is said that these were used only by men, and especially in the winter time. They were made of soft skins dressed with the hair left on and worn fur side next to the body in cold weather. Skins of marmots and rabbits were the main furs used. The breech clout had strings attached to them for fastening around the waist or to the belt. Some had belts sewn to one end, and strings from the corners of the other end to tie to the belt. In some, the belt was drawn through leather loops sewn over the edge of the skin at one end. Others had short strings from all four corners for fastening the clout to the belts.

None of the breech clouts used had long ends which hung down like aprons. None of them were simply long pieces which passed over or under the belt which held it in place. Breech Clouts were not worn anymore when pants were introduced.

Before Europeans came to the country, we did not wear pants. Perhaps they began to be used in the 1830"s. Before that time, we used a combination of breech clouts and leggings or boots. When the Europeans came, we saw that there were advantages to pants (not so drafty?). Our style changed so that we made something like pa nts. Our leggings were extended to the waist by making the tops of the legs larger and sewing them together at the front and back. These were usually held up by strings tied to the belt. A few people made a combination of boots and trousers.

We soon learned how to make pants more like the Europeans' style trousers. At first they were made of tanned hides and were like those used by fur traders and sailors. These had a buttoned front flap. These were used for many years. It was during the Cassiar gold rush (1874) that leather pants stopped being made. With the establishment of many trading stores, we could buy pants and/or heavy material to make pants. Making pants is complicated and takes a long time, so it is understandable that most people bought trousers rather than sewing them.

Both our men and women used garters. Most of them were made of plain strings and narrow bands of leather. These were tied over the leggings or boot legs below the knee. Some were fastened permanently to the leggings.

Garters were often decorated with bead or quill embroidery. In later years, some garters were fastened with buttons at the sides of the legs. Some garters were fastened to the leggings. These were made of twisted leather. Some fastened to leggings had down caught in the twining. Some garters were more for show.

Our shirts were made of tanned caribou and moose hide (usually caribou). Some were made of marmot and other strong hides. These were worn fur side out. Both men's and women"s shirts were basically the same. The only difference was that women's shirts were much longer and had pleats sewn below the front opening.

Men's Shirts

Shirts were long. Men's reached between the knee and the thigh. All shirts were cut square at the bottom. They did not have a longer flap front and back as other natives, such as the Dogrib, did. All had full length sleeves, and all were slit a short distance down the chest. This opening was tied with strings. None of them opened at the shoulders.

Most of them had narrow, vertical collars and narrow, tight cuffs. The cuffs were tight to keep out drafts and bugs. None had hoods. Shirts were worn with and without belts.

Teit was told that this design was in use for many years. The front opening, narrow collar and cuffs were not copied, but are our own design. He was told that very long ago, shirts were not very much used, but in later times they became common and used by most men. Later, after the arrival of the first fur traders, they became worn by everyone. By 1915, skin shirts were still used, but the European pattern is used. By then shirts were cut to shape from European-style patterns. That is, they have wider cuffs, collars that lie down, buttons down the front, and some have pockets. Men's shirts did not have hoods.

Nowadays, we usually buy our shirts in the store, although some people still sew shirts of cloth. Skin shirts are rarely seen, but skin coats are still made. These coats are beautifully decorated with beads and/or embroidery and are prized.

Children's Shirts

Long ago, shirts for boys are made the same as men's shirts. The difference was that there is more variation in length. They were not decorated as much, either.

Winter shirts used by young boys and girls were made of marmot, ground squirrel, and other skins. They had attached hoods. The ends of the sleeves were closed or sewn together. This way their hands were warm and they did not need mittens. These shirts opened in front where they were tied with strings. Some overlapped when closed. These shirts were usually worn fur side out.

Women wore dresses of caribou hide, made similarly to the men's shirts. They were much longer and wider, especially in the lower or skirt part. The length varied, but all were below the knees. The shorter dresses reached to about half way from knee to ankle. Most, however, reached almost to the ankle. All were square cut at the bottom.

Dresses were made from 2 skins. One formed the back, the other, the front. The middle or best part of the skin was used, skin-side out. Both front and back were cut the same size. The sides were cut at an angle so that the bottom was wider than the top. This gave a flare to the lower part of the dress. The top and bottom were cut straight across.

The two pieces of skin were sewn together, leaving openings for the neck and the sleeves. Sometimes the side seams were left open for a few centimeters (inches) up from the bottom. From the middle of the neck opening, the dress was slit down the front to near the waistline.

The sleeves were made from pieces of skin from the edges of the skin that were leftover from the dress pieces. If the leftovers were not large enough, or of good quality, then a new skin was cut. The sleeves were long and fairly close-fitting. They were wider at the shoulders and narrowed to the wrists. Sometimes the sleeve was sewn to the end of the wrists. However, most sleeves were sewn only part way down to the wrists, leaving a slit from just below the elbow to the wrists. This allowed freer movement as the women went about their numerous tasks.

A narrow, standing collar and narrow, tight cuffs finished the dress. The cuffs were closed with strings sewn to them. The neck and front openings were also closed with strings. The neck and wrists were close-fitting.

A pleat was usually put immediately below the front opening. The pleat was made a 5 cm (2-inch) fold which was sewn. This pleat resulted in the opening over lapping. Sometimes two pleats were made in order to make the waist smaller.

Usually a band of skin was sewn to one edge of the overlap at the front slit. It extended far enough down to cover the sewing of the pleat (or pleats). This band allowed the front slit to Most dresses had belts sewn to them at the back. The ends were brought around the waist and fastened with strings in the front. Many had a couple of long strings inserted in the seam at each side of the dress at the waist. These were like modern belt loops. When the belt was tied with these strings, it did not sag at the sides.

Dresses worn by nursing mothers had the front slit much longer than in dresses worn by other women. This allowed the mother to nurse her baby in comfort.

We did not have coats, overcoats or vests until after they were introduced by the Europeans. No separate cuffs were used as among other natives. Armlets used by some young men around 1912 were usually bought from outside traders. A few armlets were made of tanned hide with quill work the same as garters.

By 1915 a few coats were made of caribou hide. Some were somewhat like traditional shirts, but most were made in the fashion of the Europeans. In this day and age, we buy coats or make them made from non-traditional patterns and materials. However, a few women still make tanned hide vests and coats. We like these, and appreciate the skill and time involved in making them.

Our belts were made of tanned hide about 5-7 cm (2-3 inches) wide and of fairly heavy hide so that the belt did not stretch. Caribou skin was the main hide used, although other skins were used. Belts could be separate or attached. They were attached to dresses, some shirts, breech-clouts, etc. Some belts were made from twisted goat wool. This was an important item of clothing long ago. As you read through this book, you will see that our belts did more than hold up pants.

Long ago, before the Europeans and Asians came to our country, we did not use gloves. We had mitts made of tanned hide and sometimes of skins of marmot, caribou, beaver and other fur-bearing animals with the hair left on.

In the early 1900"s, mitts are cut following the patterns of the Europeans. Before they came, mitts were made similar to moccasins of the "round-toe" kind. A piece of skin larger than the length and width of the hand was folded over the ends of the fingers and sides of the hand. It was sewn to a piece (like a tongue in a moccasin) which covered the palm. Small pleats were made when sewing the two pieces together, like those used in sewing a moccasin. The thumb was made separately and sewn to the mitt.

Mitts varied in length, just as they do today. To insure that mitts are not lost (a disaster in our cold winter climate!), they had a strap sewn to the cuff. This was placed over the neck. The strap was made of moose or caribou leather cut in narrow strips, or of a cord of twisted goat wool. When wool was introduced, the cord was also made of braided wool. When the mitts were not in use, the cords were twisted together at the back. This kept the mitts out of the way until they were needed. In fact, that is the method still in use today.

Leather gloves, sewn by women, became popular after the Europeans brought them in. Even in the early 1900"s, home-sewn gloves and mitts were popular. At that time few woolen gloves or mitts were bought from the store. Even today, we still like our tanned hides mitts and gloves, although most people buy theirs.

Today we have a wide range of materials to use in making mitts and gloves. Wool and synthetic yarns for knitting, tanned hide, fur, duffel, fleece and thinsulate are the types of materials used in making both gloves and mitts. We like to experiment with different materials, pattern, and methods. Some materials are better than others in the cold, and some are warm, but not waterproof, and so on. Some of us spend much time and energy in creating mitts and gloves. It is more than a task, it is a work of love.

In very cold weather, we had neck wraps made of fur. Both men and women used these. Whole skins of smaller animals, like foxes, were wrapped around the neck and tied using the heads, tails, or legs. Nowadays we use knitted scarves which are usually store-bought. Our women still knit scarves sometimes. Sometimes we sew them from wool or other warm fabric.

Our traditional caps were made of fur with the hair side out. They were made by first taking a wide band of fur long enough to fit around the head. Then the ends were sewn together. A large circle of fur was cut and sewn to the band to form the crown of the hat. We chose skins which were light, yet warm. Fox, martin, and beaver were the most common ones used. Sometimes lynx was used, also. Marmot or bear skins were not used.

Some of Teit's informants told him that beaver caps were common. Winter caps had flaps of fur sewn to the sides of the band. In cold weather, these flaps covered the ears and were tied under the chin with leather thongs. When the flaps were not in use, the strings were tied at the top of the cap. This style of fur cap is still made by some, or can now be bought in stores.

In the summer, most people went bareheaded. Some young men wore a fur band (with no crown). Sometimes, even in cold weather, bands with no crown were used. These cold-weather bands had ear flaps. The caps worn by boys were the same as adult hats.

Our women and girls wore hats that were different from those of men and boys. They were more like bonnets or hoods. These were also made of fur and were used in the winter. Usually they were made from 2 or 3 pieces of fur. A wide band long enough to go over the head and cover the ears was cut from fur. A rounded piece of fur which covered the back of the head was sewn to this piece. Often, to finish the bonnet, a narrow strip of fur was sewn to the front edge. In early years they were not lined. The hats were tied under the chin. In the early 1900's, in winter many women used the same style of hats as the men. These are often lined with cloth. However, at that time and up to around 1912, women (and sometimes men) wore a silk kerchief (square scarf) on their heads. These were tied under the chin, not worn over the head with the scarf tied at the back and again on the forehead as is done with some plains natives. Our grandmothers still wore this type of kerchief in the 1960's. We do not see this type of scarf being worn very often today, however.

Hats were tied under the chin

More and more, hats are bought from stores, replacing our traditional hats. At one time, young men wore both store-bought hats and fur hat bands at the same time. Nowadays we use fur hats bought from stores (similar to the ones with fur ear flaps). We also use knitted toques. Both fur hats and toques are sometimes made by our women.

Robes were used by all of our people, men, women, and children. Most of these were made of skins dressed with the hair on. They were usually worn hair side out. The most common skins were probably marmot, ground squirrel, and lynx. Many of our wealthy people wore robes of marten and fox. The Naskoten used fisher furs.

Many robes were bordered with strips of caribou hide, 2-5 cm (2-3 inches) wide. On some, the border was placed only at the neck. Most robes were held in place with strings which tied at the neck and chest and by belts. Belts were not sewn to the robes.

Poorer people used robes of rabbit skin. The skins were either sewn together double or woven. Rabbit skins were sewn double because the skin is so light that it tears easily and because it is warmer with fur inside and out. People laughed and said, "Poor children. Their parents must be poor." Twisted strips of rabbit skin, looped to form a robe, were used mainly by women of the Talakoten.

Choosing the types of fur to use was important. The skins chosen for robes must be light weight and warm. Weight was important for comfort, but also because when we travelled in those days, everything must be carried. A few robes of caribou skin with hair on were used. Bear and beaver skins were not used because these skins weigh too much. No robes were made only of tanned hide. We had heard of robes made from woven lynx skin or the legs of foxes, but we did not make this type.

Dog skin was never used, either for bedding or clothing. We believed that skin from dogs was like poison. So natives never used their skins. Robes or clothing was rarely made from skins of sheep or goats. Sheep skin is too tender and goat skin is too uneven. Some parts are thick, others thin. People were laughed at or considered poor when they had clothing or robes of these hides. Woven goat wool robes were bought from the Tlingit were rarely worn; these were part of our ceremonial clothing.

Our robes varied in size and shape. Most were long enough to cover the body from neck to ankles. They were large enough to overlap in front. Often the robe was large enough to cover the head as well.

Our blankets and bedding for lying on was made from all kinds of large or hairy skins. Sometimes these skins were sewn together. Caribou, moose, bear, goat, sheep were common. The ones used the most were: caribou, bear and sheep. Long ago, before they became extinct in our country, buffalo were also used. All types of robes were used as covering.

Today we do not use animal skins and furs as bedding. Sometimes rugs might be made of bear or sheep skin with the hair left on.

Of course, now that we live in houses most of the year, we have different needs. So, beds and bedding are bought from stores, although some people build bed frames. When we are out in the bush, we use store-bought blankets or bed-rolls.